Safety of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat: potential risks (scientific review, part 1)

Relevance. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) is a widespread game species and an important source of meat in several regions of the world. Wild boar meat is characterized by high nutritional value, high protein content, and relatively low fat content, making it potentially attractive to consumers. However, the consumption of wild animal meat is associated with a number of biological, parasitic, and chemical risks that require veterinary monitoring and compliance with sanitary requirements.

Methods. A keyword search for potentially relevant articles was conducted in electronic databases and open access websites.

Results. This scientific review summarizes the literature on the quality characteristics of wild boar meat, the factors influencing its organoleptic and technological properties, and examines the main safety risks. Wild boar meat carries the risk of zoonotic infections and parasitic infestations, including trichinellosis, alariasis, and bacterial infections caused by Salmonella spp., E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and other microorganisms. Literature data have revealed a consistent pattern of heavy metal accumulation in wild boar. In addition to heavy metals, wild boar have been shown to accumulate radiocesium (¹³⁷Cs), with concentrations ranging from background levels to extreme values, particularly in regions affected by the Chernobyl accident. Wild boar meat can be considered a valuable food resource, provided that veterinary and sanitary inspections are conducted and heat treatment procedures are followed.

1. Kalinina S.N., Ilyukha V.A., Panchenko D.V., Zaitseva I.A. Estimating wild game consumption within the study of hunting in the Republic of Karelia. Transactions of Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2024; (7): 139–145 (in Russian).EDN GFEVBY

2. Tsaregorodtseva E.V., Kabanova T.V. Examination of meat of domestic and wild animals. Vestnik of the Mari State University. Chapter “Agriculture. Economics”. 2018; 4(3): 77–84 (in Russian).EDN YLBJML

3. Tsickin S.S., Suchkova T.N., Andreeva L.A., Korniyenko N.N. Wild boar and sika deer as а source of а high raw meat. Technology and the study of merchandise of innovative foodsuffs. 2016; (1): 20–24 (in Russian).EDN VMHVOT

4. Kasprzyk A., Stadnik J., Stasiak D. Technological and nutritional properties of meat from female wild boars (Sus scrofa scrofa L.) of different carcass weights. Archives Animal Breeding. 2019; 62(2): 597–604.https://doi.org/10.5194/aab-62-597-2019

5. Borilova G. et al. The effect of storage conditions on the hygiene and sensory status of wild boar meat. Meat Science. 2016; 118: 71–77.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.03.024

6. Sales J., Kotrba R. Meat from wild boar (Sus scrofa L.): A review. Meat Science. 2013; 94(2): 187–201.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.01.012

7. Migdał W., Radović Č., Živković V., Migdał Ł. The safety of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat hunted in different European countries. Scifood. 2026; 20: 74–91.https://doi.org/10.5219/scifood.94

8. Colomer J., Massei G., Roos D., Rosell C., Rodríguez-Teijeiro J.D. What drives wild boar density and population growth in Mediterranean environments?. Science of the Total Environment. 2024; 931: 172739.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172739

9. Kozlo P.G. Wild boar. Minsk: Uradzhay. 1975; 223 (in Russian).

10. Danilkin A.A. Pigs (Suidae). Moscow: GEOS. 2002; 308 (in Russian).ISBN 5-89118-228-09

11. Modzelewska-Kapituła M., Żmijewski T. The influence of age and gender on the quality of raw and roasted wild boars (Sus scrofa) meat. Meat Science. 2021; 181: 108600.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2021.108600

12. Wang Z. et al. Genomic insights into the demographic history and local adaptation of wild boars across Eurasia. Cell Genomics. 2025; 5(9): 100954.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xgen.2025.100954

13. Kulpin A.A. Peculiarities of biotopic distribution and feeding of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) in the north of the European part of Russia. Vestnik of Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod. 2008; (2): 82–86 (in Russian).EDN UJXNEP

14. Hahin G.V., Snegovaya I.V., Novikova N.N. Boar influence on biocenosis. Fundamental research. 2005; (10): 90–91 (in Russian).EDN IUJUHF

15. Dovrat G., Perevolotsky A., Ne’eman G. Wild boars as seed dispersal agents of exotic plants from agricultural lands to conservation areas. Journal of Arid Environments. 2012; 78: 49–54.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.11.011

16. Ballari S.A., Barrios-García M.N. A review of wild boar Sus scrofa diet and factors affecting food selection in native and introduced ranges. Mammal Review. 2014; 44(2): 124–134.https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12015

17. Barrios-Garcia M.N., Ballari S.A. Impact of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in its introduced and native range: a review. Biological Invasions. 2012; 14(11): 2283–2300.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0229-6

18. Kopij G., Panek M. Effect of Winter Temperature and Maize Food Abundance on Long-Term Population Dynamics of the Wild Boar Sus scrofa. Polish Journal of Ecology. 2016; 64(3): 436–441.https://doi.org/10.3161/15052249PJE2016.64.3.013

19. Gočárová M., Moravčíková N., Molnár L., Fik M., Kasarda R. The Impact of Biometeorological, Demographic, and Ecological Factors on the Population Density of Wild Boar in Slovakia. Sustainability. 2025; 17(10): 4516.https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104516

20. Risch D.R., Ringma J., Price M.R. The global impact of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) on terrestrial biodiversity. Scientific Reports. 2021; 11: 13256.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92691-1

21. Genov P.V., Focardi S., Morimando F., Scillitani L., Ahmed A. Ecological Impact of Wild Boar in Natural Ecosystems. Melletti M., Meijaard E. (eds.). Ecology, Conservation and Management of Wild Pigs and Peccaries. Cambridge University Press. 2017; 404–419.https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316941232.038

22. Drimaj J., Kamler J., Plhal R., Janata P., Adamec Z., Homolka M. Intensive hunting pressure changes local distribution of wild boar. Human–Wildlife Interactions. 2021; 15(1): 22–31.https://doi.org/10.26077/b792-8211

23. Ruiz-Fons F. A Review of the Current Status of Relevant Zoonotic Pathogens in Wild Swine (Sus scrofa) Populations: Changes Modulating the Risk of Transmission to Humans. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2017; 64(1): 68–88.https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12369

24. Jori F., Pleydell D., Burnichon E., Casal J., Barasona J.A. Wild boar trade and African swine fever risk of introduction into new territories: A quantitative release assessment with retrospective data of wild boar shipments to France and Spain (2010-2017). One Health. 2025; 21: 101185.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2025.101185

25. Zakharova O.I., Blokhin A.A., Toropova N.N., Burova O.A., Yashin I.V., Korennoy F.I. Density of wild boar population and spread of African swine fever in the Russian Federation. Veterinary Science Today. 2022; 11(2): 104–113 (in Russian).https://doi.org/10.29326/2304-196X-2022-11-2-104-113

26. Bellini S., Casadei G., De Lorenzi G., Tamba M. A Review of Risk Factors of African Swine Fever Incursion in Pig Farming within the European Union Scenario. Pathogens. 2021; 10(1): 84.https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10010084

27. Gervasi V., Marcon A., Bellini S., Guberti V. Evaluation of the Efficiency of Active and Passive Surveillance in the Detection of African Swine Fever in Wild Boar. Veterinary Sciences. 2020; 7(1): 5.https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7010005

28. Tomasevic I. et al. Consumers’ perceptions, attitudes and perceived quality of game meat in European countries. Meat Science. 2018; 142: 5–13.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.03.016

29. Zhikhareva S.V., Gergel M.A. Problems and prospects of safety control of game meat products in the Russian Federation. Biological and veterinary aspects in the conservation and treatment of wild animals. Proceedings of the International scientific and practical conference. Ussuriysk. 2025; 168–171 (in Russian).EDN FGDYIE

30. Egorova I.Yu., Tsybanova V.A. Wild animals as a source of human foodborne toxic infections. Russian Journal of Veterinary Pathology. 2011; (4): 45–48 (in Russian).EDN OWGJNP

31. Sampels S., Jonsson M., Sandgren M., Karlsson A., Segerkvist K.A. Sustainable Delicacy: Variation in Quality and Sensory Aspects in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) Meat and Comparison to Pork Meat—A Case Study. Foods. 2023; 12(8): 1644.https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12081644

32. Żochowska J., Lachowicz K., Gajowiecki L., Sobczak M., Kotowicz M., Żych A. Effects of carcass weight and muscle on texture, structure and myofibre characteristics of wild boar meat. Meat Science. 2005; 71(2): 244–248.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.03.019

33. Żmijewski T., Modzelewska-Kapituła M. The influence of age and sex on carcass characteristics and chemical composition of the longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle in wild boars (Sus scrofa). Archives Animal Breeding. 2021; 64(1): 199–210.https://doi.org/10.5194/aab-64-199-2021

34. Fischer J., Wüst M. Quantitative determination of the boar taint compounds androstenone, skatole, indole, 3α-androstenol and 3β-androstenol in wild boars (Sus scrofa) reveals extremely low levels of the tryptophan-related degradation products. Food Chemistry. 2012; 135(4): 2128–2132.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.06.105

35. Gavrilova K.A., Zenkov M.V., Gubin D.I., Abushaev Sh.B. Features of veterinary-sanitary expertise in market laboratory. Actual problems of infectious pathology and biotechnology: Proceedings of the X International student scientific conference. Ulyanovsk: Ulyanovsk State Agrarian University. 2017; 1: 149–152 (in Russian).EDN ZHBVKP

36. Glushchenko L.F., Laricheva K.N. Reserves and ways to improve the efficiency of using wild boar meat. Vestnik of Novgorod State University. 2013; 71(2): 32–36 (in Russian).EDN SXEGZD

37. Ludwiczak A., Składanowska-Baryza J., Stanisz M. Effect of Age and Sex on the Quality of Offal and Meat of the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). Animals. 2020; 10(4): 660.https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040660

38. Ivanovic S.D., Stojanovic Z.M., Popov-Raljic J.V., Baltic M.Ž., Pisinov B.P., Nesic K.D. Meat quality characteristics of Duroc×Yorkshire, Duroc×Yorkshire×Wild Boar and Wild Boar. Hemijska industrija. 2013; 67(6): 999–1006.https://doi.org/10.2298/HEMIND121211017I

39. Katayeva D.G., Atayev A.M. Amino acid composition of wild boar meat. Vestnik veterinarii. 2008; (2): 64–65 (in Russian).EDN JTWJJV

40. Podvalova V.V., Terebova S.V., Koltun G.G., Momot N.V. Veterinary and sanitary expertise of wild boar meat. Hippology and Veterinary Medicine. 2021; (4): 130–138 (in Russian).EDN ZTDHFY

41. Shestopalova I.A., Uvarova N.A. Development of the pate receipt with meat of wild-boar. Processes and Food Production Equipment. 2012; (1): 54 (in Russian).EDN RCPPPF

42. Batorska M. et al. Effect of sex on the meat quality of European wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa). Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences — SGGW Animal Science. 2016; 55(1): 5–11.

43. Niewiadomska K., Kosicka-Gębska M., Gębski J., JeżewskaZychowicz M., Sułek M. Perception of the Health Threats Related to the Consumption of Wild Animal Meat—Is Eating Game Risky?. Foods. 2021; 10(7): 1544.https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071544

44. Kwiecińska K., Kosicka-Gębska M., Gębski J. Safety level as a factor determining venison consumption. Problemy Higieny i Epidemiologii. 2015; 96(3): 594–597 (in Polish).

45. Es’kov E.K., Vachugov D.D. Probability of pollution of the body of wild boars heavy metals. Climate, ecology, agriculture of Eurasia. Proceedings of the III International scientific and practical conference dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the Irkutsk State Agricultural Academy. Irkutsk: Irkutsk State Agricultural Academy. 2014; 120–123 (in Russian).EDN TQDWIB

46. Lénárt Z., Bartha A., Abonyi-Tóth Z., Lehel J. Monitoring of metal content in the tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and its food safety aspect. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2023; 30(6): 15899–15910.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23329-6

47. Vidosavljević D. et al. Assessment of Selected Heavy Metals and Arsenic Concentrations in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa L.) from Papuk Nature Park (Croatia). Journal of Xenobiotics. 2025; 15(3): 74.https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15030074

48. Durkalec M., Szkoda J., Kolacz R., Opaliński S., Nawrocka A., Zmudzki J. Bioaccumulation of Lead, Cadmium and Mercury in Roe Deer and Wild Boars from Areas with Different Levels of Toxic Metal Pollution. International Journal of Environmental Research. 2015; 9(1): 205–212.

49. Roślewska A., Stanek M., Janicki B., Cygan-Szczegielniak D., Stasiak K., Buzała M. Effect of sex on the content of elements in meat from wild boars (Sus scrofa L.) originating from the Province of Podkarpacie (south-eastern Poland). Journal of Elementology. 2016; 21(3): 823–832.https://doi.org/10.5601/jelem.2015.20.2.943

50. Maľová J., Ciberej J., Maľa P., Zigo F., Semjon B. Heavy metal levels in the tissues of wild living animals from two distinct industrially exploited areas in Slovakia. Slovak Journal of Animal Science. 2019; 52(3): 100–110.

51. Gašparík J. et al. Levels of Metals in Kidney, Liver, and Muscle Tissue and their Influence on the Fitness for the Consumption of Wild Boar from Western Slovakia. Biological Trace Element Research. 2017; 177(2): 258–266.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-016-0884-z

52. Boișteanu P.-C. et al. Essential and toxic elements analysis of wild boar tissues from north-eastern Romania and health risk implications. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2024; 8: 1406579.https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1406579

53. Bilandžić N., Sedak M., Đokić M., Šimić N. Wild Boar Tissue Levels of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury in Seven Regions of Continental Croatia. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2010; 84(6): 738–743.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-010-9999-7

54. Ertl K., Kitzer R., Goessler W. Elemental composition of game meat from Austria. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B. 2016; 9(2): 120–126.https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2016.1151464

55. Danieli P.P., Serrani F., Primi R., Ponzetta M.P., Ronchi B., Amici A. Cadmium, Lead, and Chromium in Large Game: A Local-Scale Exposure Assessment for Hunters Consuming Meat and Liver of Wild Boar. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2012; 63(4): 612–627.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-012-9791-2

56. Palazzo M. et al. Quality and safety of meat from wild boar hunted in Molise region. Italian Journal of Animal Science. 2021; 20(1): 1889–1898.https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2021.1965924

57. Mehmood N. et al. Lead concentrations in wild boar from Sardinia: analysis of food safety concerns. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2025; 37: 54.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01092-y

58. Demirbaş Y., Erduran N. Concentration of Selected Heavy Metals in Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus) and Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) from Central Turkey. Balkan Journal of Wildlife Research. 2017; 4(2): 26–33.https://doi.org/10.15679/bjwr.v4i2.54

59. Rutkowska-Mazur A., Niedziółka J., Walczycka M., Gubała D., Migdał Ł., Migdał W. The chemical composition and safety of wild boars meat hunted in Poland. Journal of Hygienic Engineering and Design. 2023; 43: 57–69.

60. Petrović Z., Vranić D., Đinović-Stojanović J., Velebit B., Lukić M., Nikolić D. Cadmium and mercury content in liver and kidneys of wild game caught in various regions of Serbia. International 57th Meat Industry Conference, Meat and Meat Products - Perspectives of Sustainable Production. Proceedings. Belgrade, Serbia: Institute of Meat Hygiene and Technology. 2013; 257–262.

61. Florijančić T. et al. Assessment of heavy metal content in wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) hunted in eastern Croatia. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology. 2015; 16(2): 630–636.

62. Piskorová Ľ., Vasilková Z., Krupicer I. Heavy metal residues in tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in the Central Zemplin region of the Slovak Republic. Czech Journal of Animal Science. 2003; 48(3): 134–138.

63. Jota Baptista C. et al. Heavy metals and metalloids in wild boars (Sus scrofa) — a silent but serious public health hazard. Veterinary Research Communications. 2024; 48(2): 1015–1023.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-023-10272-1

64. Malmsten A., Dalin A.-M., Pettersson J., Persson S. Concentrations of cadmium, lead, arsenic, and some essential metals in wild boar from Sweden. European Journal of Wildlife Research. 2021; 67(2): 18.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-021-01460-y

65. Rudy M. Chemical composition of wild boar meat and relationship between age and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in muscle and liver tissue. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 2010; 27(4): 464–472.https://doi.org/10.1080/19440040903493785

66. Bąkowska M., Pilarczyk B., Tomza-Marciniak A., Pilarczyk R., Udała J. Cadmium in Selected Organs of Game Animals from Areas with Different Degrees of Industrialisation and Its Intake by Human Consumers. Animals. 2024; 14(2): 305.https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020305

67. Cammilleri G. et al. Trace metals and metalloids in wild boars (S. scrofa) from Southern Italy: comparison between urban and wild areas. Chemosphere. 2025; 380: 144473.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2025.144473

68. Cokoski K. et al. Occurrence of Heavy Metals (Cd, Pb, As, Hg) in the Liver of Wild Boars in the Republic of North Macedonia. Contemporary Agriculture. 2024; 73(1–2): 28–33.https://doi.org/10.2478/contagri-2024-0004

69. Draghi S. et al. Evaluation of the Difference in the Content of Essential and Non-Essential Elements in Wild Boar and Swine Tissues Sampled in the Same Area of Northern Italy. Animals. 2024; 14(6): 827.https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14060827

70. Yel’tsova L.S. Assessment of mercury intake by wild meat consumers in the Vologda region. Nauchyy aspekt. 2023; (5-17): 2173–2183 (in Russian).EDN AVLOWC

71. Lazarus M., Prevendar Crnić A., Bilandžić N., Kusak J., Reljić S. Cadmium, lead, and mercury exposure assessment among Croatian consumers of free-living game. Arhiv za Higijenu Rada i Toksikologiju. 2014; 65(3): 281–292.https://doi.org/10.2478/10004-1254-65-2014-2527

72. Nawrocka A. et al. Total mercury levels in the muscle and liver of livestock and game animals in Poland, 2009–2018. Chemosphere. 2020; 258: 127311.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127311

73. Maksimyuk N.N., Rebezov M.B. Study of xenobiotics in the meat of wild boar. International Research Journal. 2015; (7-2): 81–85 (in Russian).EDN UCQOXJ

74. Vilić M., Barisic D., Kraljevic P., Lulic S. 137Cs concentration in meat of wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Croatia a decade and half after the Chernobyl accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2005; 81(1): 55–62.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.12.001

75. Kouba F. et al. Radiocaesium in wild boars in Novohradské (Gratzen) Mountains. Acta Veterinaria Brno. 2022; 91(1): 87–97.https://doi.org/10.2754/avb202291010087

76. Yoshida M. et al. Distribution of Radioactive Cesium during Wild Boar Meat Processing. Journal of Food Protection. 2022; 85(9): 1258–1264.https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-22-124

77. Czerski P., Gembal M., Warenik-Bany M. Caesium-137 in the muscles of game animals in 2015-2022 - levels and time trend. Journal of Veterinary Research. 2024; 68(2): 263–270.https://doi.org/10.2478/jvetres-2024-0026

78. Oloś G., Dołhańczuk-Śródka A. Levels of 137Cs in game and soil in Opole Anomaly, Poland in 2012–2020. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2021; 223: 112577.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112577

79. Hohmann U., Huckschlag D. Investigations on the radiocaesium contamination of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat in Rhineland-Palatinate: a stomach content analysis. European Journal of Wildlife Research. 2005; 51(4): 263–270.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-005-0108-x

80. Dvořák P., Snášel P., Beňová K. Transfer of Radiocesium into Wild Boar Meat. Acta Veterinaria Brno. 2010; 79(S9): S85–S91.https://doi.org/10.2754/avb201079s9s085